Over the past decade, improvements in perioperative care have been widely introduced throughout the United States, yet there is no clear indication that the death rate following surgery has improved. We sought to evaluate the number of deaths after surgery in the United States over a 10-year period and to evaluate trends in postoperative mortality.Using the National Hospital Discharge Survey, we identified patients who underwent a surgical procedure and subsequently died in the hospital within 30 days of admission.In 1996 there were 12,250,000 hospitalizations involving surgery, rising to 13,668,000 in 2006. Postoperative deaths, however, declined during this same period, from 201,000 to 156,000 (P < 0.01), giving a postoperative in-hospital death ratio (death per hospitalization) of 1.64 and 1.14% (P < 0.001), respectively, for the two time frames.The death rate following surgery is substantial but appears to have improved. Such mortality statistics provide an essential measure of the public health impact of surgical care. Incorporating mortality statistics following therapeutic intervention is an essential strategy for regional and national surveillance of care delivery.
View details for DOI 10.1007/s00268-011-1169-5
View details for Web of Science ID 000293705500002
View details for PubMedID 21732207
Surgery is an essential part of health care, but resources to ensure the availability of surgical services are often inadequate. We estimated the global distribution of operating theatres and quantified the availability of pulse oximetry, which is an essential monitoring device during surgery and a potential measure of operating theatre resources.We calculated ratios of the number of operating theatres to hospital beds in seven geographical regions worldwide on the basis of profiles from 769 hospitals in 92 countries that participated in WHO's safe surgery saves lives initiative. We used hospital bed figures from 190 WHO member states to estimate the number of operating theatres per 100,000 people in 21 subregions throughout the world. To estimate availability of pulse oximetry, we sent surveys to anaesthesia providers in 72 countries selected to ensure a geographically and demographically diverse sample. A predictive regression model was used to estimate the pulse oximetry need for countries that did not provide data.The estimated number of operating theatres ranged from 1·0 (95% CI 0·9-1·2) per 100,000 people in west sub-Saharan Africa to 25·1 (20·9-30·1) per 100,000 in eastern Europe. High-income subregions all averaged more than 14 per 100,000 people, whereas all low-income subregions, representing 2·2 billion people, had fewer than two theatres per 100,000. Pulse oximetry data from 54 countries suggested that around 77,700 (63,195-95,533) theatres worldwide (19·2% [15·2-23·9]) were not equipped with pulse oximeters.Improvements in public-health strategies and monitoring are needed to reduce disparities for more than 2 billion people without adequate access to surgical care.WHO.
View details for DOI 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60392-3
View details for Web of Science ID 000282411600032
View details for PubMedID 20598365
Public health surveillance relies on standardised metrics to evaluate disease burden and health system performance. Such metrics have not been developed for surgical services despite increasing volume, substantial cost, and high rates of death and disability associated with surgery. The Safe Surgery Saves Lives initiative of WHO's Patient Safety Programme has developed standardised public health metrics for surgical care that are applicable worldwide. We assembled an international panel of experts to develop and define metrics for measuring the magnitude and effect of surgical care in a population, while taking into account economic feasibility and practicability. This panel recommended six measures for assessing surgical services at a national level: number of operating rooms, number of operations, number of accredited surgeons, number of accredited anaesthesia professionals, day-of-surgery death ratio, and postoperative in-hospital death ratio. We assessed the feasibility of gathering such statistics at eight diverse hospitals in eight countries and incorporated them into the WHO Guidelines for Safe Surgery, in which methods for data collection, analysis, and reporting are outlined.
View details for Web of Science ID 000270370900034
View details for PubMedID 19782877
Surgery has become an integral part of global health care, with an estimated 234 million operations performed yearly. Surgical complications are common and often preventable. We hypothesized that a program to implement a 19-item surgical safety checklist designed to improve team communication and consistency of care would reduce complications and deaths associated with surgery.Between October 2007 and September 2008, eight hospitals in eight cities (Toronto, Canada; New Delhi, India; Amman, Jordan; Auckland, New Zealand; Manila, Philippines; Ifakara, Tanzania; London, England; and Seattle, WA) representing a variety of economic circumstances and diverse populations of patients participated in the World Health Organization's Safe Surgery Saves Lives program. We prospectively collected data on clinical processes and outcomes from 3733 consecutively enrolled patients 16 years of age or older who were undergoing noncardiac surgery. We subsequently collected data on 3955 consecutively enrolled patients after the introduction of the Surgical Safety Checklist. The primary end point was the rate of complications, including death, during hospitalization within the first 30 days after the operation.The rate of death was 1.5% before the checklist was introduced and declined to 0.8% afterward (P=0.003). Inpatient complications occurred in 11.0% of patients at baseline and in 7.0% after introduction of the checklist (P<0.001).Implementation of the checklist was associated with concomitant reductions in the rates of death and complications among patients at least 16 years of age who were undergoing noncardiac surgery in a diverse group of hospitals.
View details for Web of Science ID 000262812400008
View details for PubMedID 19144931
Little is known about the amount and availability of surgical care globally. We estimated the number of major operations undertaken worldwide, described their distribution, and assessed the importance of surgical care in global public-health policy.We gathered demographic, health, and economic data for 192 member states of WHO. Data for the rate of surgery were sought from several sources including governmental agencies, statistical and epidemiological organisations, published studies, and individuals involved in surgical policy initiatives. We also obtained per-head total expenditure on health from analyses done in 2004. Major surgery was defined as any intervention occurring in a hospital operating theatre involving the incision, excision, manipulation, or suturing of tissue, usually requiring regional or general anaesthesia or sedation. We created a model to estimate rates of major surgery for countries for which such data were unavailable, then used demographic information to calculate the total worldwide volume of surgery.We obtained surgical data for 56 (29%) of 192 WHO member states. We estimated that 234.2 (95% CI 187.2-281.2) million major surgical procedures are undertaken every year worldwide. Countries spending US$100 or less per head on health care have an estimated mean rate of major surgery of 295 (SE 53) procedures per 100 000 population per year, whereas those spending more than $1000 have a mean rate of 11 110 (SE 1300; p<0.0001). Middle-expenditure ($401-1000) and high-expenditure (>$1000) countries, accounting for 30.2% of the world's population, provided 73.6% (172.3 million) of operations worldwide in 2004, whereas poor-expenditure (
View details for Web of Science ID 000257552400028
View details for PubMedID 18582931
All surgeons want the best, safest care for their patients, but providing this requires the complex coordination of multiple disciplines to ensure that all elements of care are timely, appropriate, and well organized. Quality-improvement initiatives are beginning to lead to improvements in the quality of care and coordination amongst teams in the operating room. As the population ages and patients present with more complex disease pathology, the demands for efficient systematization will increase. Although evidence suggests that postoperative mortality rates are declining, there is substantial room for improvement. Multiple quality metrics are used as surrogates for safe care, but surgical teams--including surgeons, anaesthetists, and nurses--must think beyond these simple interventions if they are to effectively communicate and coordinate in the face of increasing demands.
View details for DOI 10.1038/nrurol.2013.13
View details for Web of Science ID 000316712500007
View details for PubMedID 23419492
Checklists are increasingly being used by surgical teams in the perioperative period to improve clinical care and increase patient safety. In this article, we review some of the mechanisms by which checklists work and evaluate evidence supporting their use.There is a growing body of evidence showing the importance of team-based checklists in clinical care. In multiple complex clinical environments, from the operating room to the intensive care unit, checklists can help ensure adherence to known standards of care and improve communication amongst team members. In addition, the efficacy of checklists is being shown in both developed and developing settings.Checklists can aid clinicians involved in complex processes and multidisciplinary team interactions to improve the quality and safety of care by prompting dialogue and exchange of information.
View details for DOI 10.1007/s12630-012-9854-x
View details for Web of Science ID 000315579500006
View details for PubMedID 23233394
View details for PubMedID 23649532
View details for DOI 10.1002/bjs.7774
View details for Web of Science ID 000303148800010
View details for PubMedID 22287072
Nationwide rates and patterns of death after surgery are unknown.Using the Nationwide Inpatient Sample, we compared deaths within 30 days of admission for patients undergoing surgery in 1996 and 2006. International Classification of Diseases codes were used to identify 2,520 procedures for analysis. We examined the inpatient 30-day death rate for all procedures, procedures with the most deaths, high-risk cardiovascular and cancer procedures, and patients who suffered a recorded complication. We used logistic regression modeling to adjust 1996 mortality rates to the age and gender distributions for patients undergoing surgery in 2006.In 1996, there were 12,573,331 admissions with a surgical procedure (95% confidence interval [CI], 12,560,171-12,586,491) and 224,111 inpatient deaths within 30 days of admission (95% CI, 221,912-226,310). In 2006, there were 14,333,993 admissions with a surgical procedure (95% CI, 14,320,983-14,347,002) and 189,690 deaths (95% CI, 187,802-191,578). Inpatient 30-day mortality declined from 1.68% in 1996 to 1.32% in 2006 (P < .001). Of the 21 procedures with the most deaths in 1996, 15 had significant declines in adjusted mortality in 2006. Among these 15 procedures, 8 had significant declines in operative volume. The inpatient 30-day mortality rate for patients who suffered a complication decreased from 12.10% to 9.84% (P < .001).Nationwide reporting on surgical mortality suggests that the number of inpatient deaths within 30 days of surgery has declined. Additional research to determine the underlying causes for decreased mortality is warranted.
View details for DOI 10.1016/j.surg.2011.07.021
View details for Web of Science ID 000299607800005
View details for PubMedID 21975292
The surgical learning curve persists for years after training, yet existing continuing medical education activities targeting this are limited. We describe a pilot study of a scalable video-based intervention, providing individualized feedback on intraoperative performance.Four complex operations performed by surgeons of varying experience--a chief resident accompanied by the operating senior surgeon, a surgeon with less than 10 years in practice, another with 20 to 30 years in practice, and a surgeon with more than 30 years of experience--were video recorded. Video playback formed the basis of 1-hour coaching sessions with a peer-judged surgical expert. These sessions were audio recorded, transcribed, and thematically coded.The sessions focused on operative technique--both technical aspects and decision-making. With increasing seniority, more discussion was devoted to the optimization of teaching and facilitation of the resident's technical performance. Coaching sessions with senior surgeons were peer-to-peer interactions, with each discussing his preferred approach. The coach alternated between directing the session (asking probing questions) and responding to specific questions brought by the surgeons, depending on learning style. At all experience levels, video review proved valuable in identifying episodes of failure to progress and troubleshooting alternative approaches. All agreed this tool is a powerful one. Inclusion of trainees seems most appropriate when coaching senior surgeons; it may restrict the dialogue of more junior attendings.Video-based coaching is an educational modality that targets intraoperative judgment, technique, and teaching. Surgeons of all levels found it highly instructive. This may provide a practical, much needed approach for continuous professional development.
View details for DOI 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2011.10.009
View details for Web of Science ID 000299054400017
View details for PubMedID 22192924
Surgical care is a vital component of health care worldwide, yet there is no clinically meaningful measure of operative outcomes that could be applied globally. The Surgical Apgar Score, a simple metric derived from 3 intraoperative parameters, has been shown in U.S. academic medical centers to predict 30-day patient outcomes after operation, but has not been validated more broadly.We collected the components of the Surgical Apgar Score at the time of operation for 5,909 adult patients undergoing noncardiac operative procedures under general anesthesia at 8 hospitals in diverse international settings and evaluated the relationship between patients' scores and the incidence of inpatient postoperative morbidity and mortality, using generalized estimating equations to adjust for clustering within sites.During the first 30 days of postoperative hospitalization, 544 patients (9.2%) experienced ? 1 complications. Compared with patients with the median score of 7--whose complication rate was 9.1%-those with a Surgical Apgar Score <5 (n = 302) had an adjusted complication rate of 32.9% (relative risk [RR],3.6; 95% CI, 2.9-4.5), whereas those with a score of 10 (n = 238) had a 3.0% adjusted complication rate (RR, 0.3; 95% CI, 0.1-1.1). The score's c-statistic for prediction of any complication is 0.70; for death it is 0.77.The Surgical Apgar Score is easily calculated, predictive, and moderately discriminative for major complications among adults undergoing inpatient noncardiac operative procedures. Such a score could provide objective indication of relative postoperative risk for inpatients and provide a potential target for quality improvement efforts, particularly in resource-limited settings.
View details for DOI 10.1016/j.surg.2010.10.019
View details for Web of Science ID 000289017500007
View details for PubMedID 21216419
To assess the relationship between changes in clinician attitude and changes in postoperative outcomes following a checklist-based surgical safety intervention.Pre- and post intervention survey.Eight hospitals participating in a trial of a WHO surgical safety checklist.Clinicians actively working in the designated study operating rooms at the eight hospitals. SURVEY INSTRUMENT: Modified operating-room version Safety Attitudes Questionnaire (SAQ).Change in mean safety attitude score and correlation between change in safety attitude score and change in postoperative outcomes, plus clinician opinion of checklist efficacy and usability.Clinicians in the preintervention phase (n=281) had a mean SAQ score of 3.91 (on a scale of 1 to 5, with 5 representing better safety attitude), while the postintervention group (n=257) had a mean of 4.01 (p=0.0127). The degree of improvement in mean SAQ score at each site correlated with a reduction in postoperative complication rate (r=0.7143, p=0.0381). The checklist was considered easy to use by 80.2% of respondents, while 19.8% felt that it took a long time to complete, and 78.6% felt that the programme prevented errors. Overall, 93.4% would want the checklist used if they were undergoing operation.Improvements in postoperative outcomes were associated with improved perception of teamwork and safety climate among respondents, suggesting that changes in these may be partially responsible for the effect of the checklist. Clinicians held the checklist in high regard and the overwhelming majority would want it used if they were undergoing surgery themselves.
View details for DOI 10.1136/bmjqs.2009.040022
View details for Web of Science ID 000289726400014
View details for PubMedID 21228082
View details for DOI 10.1038/nrurol.2010.155
View details for Web of Science ID 000282679500005
View details for PubMedID 20930866
The World Health Organization's Patient Safety Programme created an initiative to improve the safety of surgery around the world. In order to accomplish this goal the programme team developed a checklist with items that could and, if at all possible, should be practised in all settings where surgery takes place. There is little guidance in the literature regarding methods for creating a medical checklist. The airline industry, however, has more than 70 years of experience in developing and using checklists. The authors of the WHO Surgical Safety Checklist drew lessons from the aviation experience to create a safety tool that supports essential clinical practice. In order to inform the methodology for development of future checklists in health care, we review how we applied lessons learned from the aviation experience in checklist development to the development of the Surgical Safety Checklist and also discuss the differences that exist between aviation and medicine that impact the use of checklists in health care.
View details for DOI 10.1093/intqhc/mzq039
View details for Web of Science ID 000281958200020
View details for PubMedID 20702569
Use of the World Health Organization's Surgical Safety Checklist has been associated with a significant reduction in major postoperative complications after inpatient surgery. We hypothesized that implementing the checklist in the United States would generate cost savings for hospitals. We performed a decision analysis comparing implementation of the checklist to existing practice in U.S. hospitals. In a hospital with a baseline major complication rate after surgery of at least 3 percent, the checklist generates cost savings once it prevents at least five major complications. Using the checklist would both save money and improve the quality of care in hospitals throughout the United States.
View details for DOI 10.1377/hlthaff.2009.0709
View details for Web of Science ID 000281601300006
View details for PubMedID 20820013
To assess whether implementation of a 19-item World Health Organization (WHO) Surgical Safety Checklist in urgent surgical cases would improve compliance with basic standards of care and reduce rates of deaths and complications.Use of the WHO Surgical Safety Checklist has been shown to be associated with significant reductions in complications and deaths. Before evaluation of this safety tool, concern was raised about whether its use would be practical or beneficial during urgent surgical procedures.We prospectively collected clinical process and outcome data for 1750 consecutively enrolled patients 16 years of age or older undergoing urgent noncardiac surgery before and after introduction of the WHO Surgical Safety Checklist in 8 diverse hospitals around the world; 842 underwent urgent surgery-defined as an operation required within 24 hours of assessment to be beneficial-before introduction of the checklist and 908 after introduction of the checklist. The primary end point was the rate of complications, including death, during hospitalization up to 30 days following surgery.The complication rate was 18.4% (n=151) at baseline and 11.7% (n=102) after the checklist was introduced (P=0.0001). Death rates dropped from 3.7% to 1.4% following checklist introduction (P=0.0067). Adherence to 6 measured safety steps improved from 18.6% to 50.7% (P<0.0001).Implementation of the checklist was associated with a greater than one-third reduction in complications among adult patients undergoing urgent noncardiac surgery in a diverse group of hospitals. Use of the WHO Surgical Safety Checklist in urgent operations is feasible and should be considered.
View details for DOI 10.1097/SLA.0b013e3181d970e3
View details for Web of Science ID 000277101200028
View details for PubMedID 20395848