Carolyn Lee MD PhD

All Publications

• PD-L1 Expression and Tumor-Infiltrating Lymphocytes in High-Risk and Metastatic Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma. Otolaryngology--head and neck surgery : official journal of American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery Amoils, M., Kim, J., Lee, C., Sunwoo, J. B., Colevas, A. D., Aasi, S. Z., Hollmig, S. T., Ma, Y., Divi, A. V. 2018: 194599818788057

  Abstract

  Objective To characterize programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression and tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte (TIL) positivity for locally aggressive or regionally metastatic cutaneous head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (cHNSCC). Study Design Retrospective chart review, followed by immunohistochemical staining of archived tumor specimens. Setting Tertiary academic medical center. Subjects and Methods After identification of 101 patients treated surgically for locally advanced or regionally metastatic cHNSCC, archived tissue was stained and graded for PD-L1 expression in addition to TIL presence. Cross-tabulation was performed to examine the association between either of these variables and clinicopathologic features and outcomes. Results A total of 101 patients met inclusion criteria, but archived tissue was available only for 83 (31 primaries, 52 metastases). The majority of primary tumors demonstrated grade 1 PD-L1 staining, while grade 2 staining was more likely for metastases. Neither high- nor low-grade PD-L1 expression correlated with any clinicopathologic variable for primary tumors. However, for metastases, high-grade staining was significantly associated with regional recurrence (15 of 19, P = .02). TILs were present for 65% of primary tumors and 90% of regional metastases but did not correlate with any clinicopathologic variables. Conclusion Diffuse expression of PD-L1 in this study highlights the possibility of using immunotherapy in the form of programmed death 1/PD-L1 blockade to improve treatment for this devastating disease. However, further studies are needed to clarify the significance of PD-L1 expression and TIL positivity for locally advanced or regionally metastatic cHNSCC.

  View details for PubMedID 30012051

• Cancer-Associated Long Noncoding RNA SMRT-2 Controls Epidermal Differentiation JOURNAL OF INVESTIGATIVE DERMATOLOGY Lee, C. S., Mah, A., Aros, C. J., Lopez-Pajares, V., Bhaduri, A., Webster, D. E., Kretz, M., Khavari, P. A. 2018; 138 (6): 1445?49

  View details for PubMedID 29360484

• Node-positive cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck: Survival, high-risk features, and adjuvant chemoradiotherapy outcomes. Head & neck Amoils, M., Lee, C. S., Sunwoo, J., Aasi, S. Z., Hara, W., Kim, J., Sirjani, D., Colevas, A. D., Chang, A. L., Divi, V. 2017

  Abstract

  Data lacks to guide treatment of regionally metastatic cutaneous head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC).We conducted a retrospective review of 80 patients treated for regionally metastatic cutaneous HNSCC. The effect of various clinicopathologic variables on overall survival (OS) was investigated, in addition to outcomes by treatment modality.On multivariate regression, cutaneous primary >2 cm (p = .03) and extracapsular spread (ECS; p = .01) were significantly associated with decreased OS. Location of regional metastasis (neck vs parotid vs both) had no effect on OS (p = .2), nor did the presence of a cutaneous primary at the time of presentation (p = .9). The 3-year survival was 43%, 52%, and 49% for surgery alone, adjuvant radiation, and adjuvant chemoradiation, respectively. Fifty-one percent of patients had a recurrence of their disease.Regionally metastatic cutaneous HNSCC is an aggressive disease associated with high recurrence rates. Patients with tumors >2 cm and ECS have poorer OS despite adjuvant therapy. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Head Neck 39: 881-885, 2017.

  View details for DOI 10.1002/hed.24692

  View details for PubMedID 28252823

• Factors That May Promote an Effective Local Research Environment JOURNAL OF INVESTIGATIVE DERMATOLOGY Wang, K., Lee, C. S., Marinkovich, M., Chang, H. Y., Oro, A. E., Khavari, P. A. 2016; 136 (8): 1529?31

  View details for PubMedID 27450496

• Skin Cancer Prevention and Treatment in Solid Organ Transplant Patients: A Survey of the International Transplant Skin Cancer Collaborative. Dermatologic surgery Wang, A., Chan, A., Aasi, S., Lee, C., Krathen, M. 2016; 42 (5): 682-683

  View details for DOI 10.1097/DSS.0000000000000668

  View details for PubMedID 27045747

• Mutations in the Kinetochore Gene KNSTRN in Basal Cell Carcinoma. journal of investigative dermatology Jaju, P. D., Nguyen, C. B., Mah, A. M., Atwood, S. X., Li, J., Zia, A., Chang, A. L., Oro, A. E., Tang, J. Y., Lee, C. S., Sarin, K. Y. 2015; 135 (12): 3197-3200

  View details for DOI 10.1038/jid.2015.339

  View details for PubMedID 26348826

• Genomic analysis of mycosis fungoides and Sézary syndrome identifies recurrent alterations in TNFR2. Nature genetics Ungewickell, A., Bhaduri, A., Rios, E., Reuter, J., Lee, C. S., Mah, A., Zehnder, A., Ohgami, R., Kulkarni, S., Armstrong, R., Weng, W., Gratzinger, D., Tavallaee, M., Rook, A., Snyder, M., Kim, Y., Khavari, P. A. 2015; 47 (9): 1056-1060

  Abstract

  Mycosis fungoides and Sézary syndrome comprise the majority of cutaneous T cell lymphomas (CTCLs), disorders notable for their clinical heterogeneity that can present in skin or peripheral blood. Effective treatment options for CTCL are limited, and the genetic basis of these T cell lymphomas remains incompletely characterized. Here we report recurrent point mutations and genomic gains of TNFRSF1B, encoding the tumor necrosis factor receptor TNFR2, in 18% of patients with mycosis fungoides and Sézary syndrome. Expression of the recurrent TNFR2 Thr377Ile mutant in T cells leads to enhanced non-canonical NF-?B signaling that is sensitive to the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib. Using an integrative genomic approach, we additionally discovered a recurrent CTLA4-CD28 fusion, as well as mutations in downstream signaling mediators of these receptors.

  View details for DOI 10.1038/ng.3370

  View details for PubMedID 26258847

• Genomic analysis of mycosis fungoides and Sezary syndrome identifies recurrent alterations in TNFR2 NATURE GENETICS Ungewickell, A., Bhaduri, A., Rios, E., Reuter, J., Lee, C. S., Mah, A., Zehnder, A., Ohgami, R., Kulkarni, S., Armstrong, R., Weng, W., Gratzinger, D., Tavallaee, M., Rook, A., Snyder, M., Kim, Y., Khavari, P. A. 2015; 47 (9): 1056-?

  Abstract

  Mycosis fungoides and Sézary syndrome comprise the majority of cutaneous T cell lymphomas (CTCLs), disorders notable for their clinical heterogeneity that can present in skin or peripheral blood. Effective treatment options for CTCL are limited, and the genetic basis of these T cell lymphomas remains incompletely characterized. Here we report recurrent point mutations and genomic gains of TNFRSF1B, encoding the tumor necrosis factor receptor TNFR2, in 18% of patients with mycosis fungoides and Sézary syndrome. Expression of the recurrent TNFR2 Thr377Ile mutant in T cells leads to enhanced non-canonical NF-?B signaling that is sensitive to the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib. Using an integrative genomic approach, we additionally discovered a recurrent CTLA4-CD28 fusion, as well as mutations in downstream signaling mediators of these receptors.

  View details for DOI 10.1038/ng.3370

  View details for Web of Science ID 000360394100016

• Recurrent point mutations in the kinetochore gene KNSTRN in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma NATURE GENETICS Lee, C. S., Bhaduri, A., Mah, A., Johnson, W. L., Ungewickell, A., Aros, C. J., Nguyen, C. B., Rios, E. J., Siprashvili, Z., Straight, A., Kim, J., Aasi, S. Z., Khavari, P. A. 2014; 46 (10): 1060-1062

  Abstract

  Here we report the discovery of recurrent mutations concentrated at an ultraviolet signature hotspot in KNSTRN, which encodes a kinetochore protein, in 19% of cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs). Cancer-associated KNSTRN mutations, most notably those encoding p.Ser24Phe, disrupt chromatid cohesion in normal cells, occur in SCC precursors, correlate with increased aneuploidy in primary tumors and enhance tumorigenesis in vivo. These findings suggest a role for KNSTRN mutagenesis in SCC development.

  View details for DOI 10.1038/ng.3091

  View details for Web of Science ID 000342554100007

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC4324615

• Recurrent point mutations in the kinetochore gene KNSTRN in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. Nature genetics Lee, C. S., Bhaduri, A., Mah, A., Johnson, W. L., Ungewickell, A., Aros, C. J., Nguyen, C. B., Rios, E. J., Siprashvili, Z., Straight, A., Kim, J., Aasi, S. Z., Khavari, P. A. 2014; 46 (10): 1060-1062

  Abstract

  Here we report the discovery of recurrent mutations concentrated at an ultraviolet signature hotspot in KNSTRN, which encodes a kinetochore protein, in 19% of cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs). Cancer-associated KNSTRN mutations, most notably those encoding p.Ser24Phe, disrupt chromatid cohesion in normal cells, occur in SCC precursors, correlate with increased aneuploidy in primary tumors and enhance tumorigenesis in vivo. These findings suggest a role for KNSTRN mutagenesis in SCC development.

  View details for DOI 10.1038/ng.3091

  View details for PubMedID 25194279

• Control of somatic tissue differentiation by the long non-coding RNA TINCR. Nature Kretz, M., Siprashvili, Z., Chu, C., Webster, D. E., Zehnder, A., Qu, K., Lee, C. S., Flockhart, R. J., Groff, A. F., Chow, J., Johnston, D., Kim, G. E., Spitale, R. C., Flynn, R. A., Zheng, G. X., Aiyer, S., Raj, A., Rinn, J. L., Chang, H. Y., Khavari, P. A. 2013; 493 (7431): 231-235

  Abstract

  Several of the thousands of human long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been functionally characterized; however, potential roles for lncRNAs in somatic tissue differentiation remain poorly understood. Here we show that a 3.7-kilobase lncRNA, terminal differentiation-induced ncRNA (TINCR), controls human epidermal differentiation by a post-transcriptional mechanism. TINCR is required for high messenger RNA abundance of key differentiation genes, many of which are mutated in human skin diseases, including FLG, LOR, ALOXE3, ALOX12B, ABCA12, CASP14 and ELOVL3. TINCR-deficient epidermis lacked terminal differentiation ultrastructure, including keratohyalin granules and intact lamellar bodies. Genome-scale RNA interactome analysis revealed that TINCR interacts with a range of differentiation mRNAs. TINCR-mRNA interaction occurs through a 25-nucleotide 'TINCR box' motif that is strongly enriched in interacting mRNAs and required for TINCR binding. A high-throughput screen to analyse TINCR binding capacity to approximately 9,400 human recombinant proteins revealed direct binding of TINCR RNA to the staufen1 (STAU1) protein. STAU1-deficient tissue recapitulated the impaired differentiation seen with TINCR depletion. Loss of UPF1 and UPF2, both of which are required for STAU1-mediated RNA decay, however, did not have differentiation effects. Instead, the TINCR-STAU1 complex seems to mediate stabilization of differentiation mRNAs, such as KRT80. These data identify TINCR as a key lncRNA required for somatic tissue differentiation, which occurs through lncRNA binding to differentiation mRNAs to ensure their expression.

  View details for DOI 10.1038/nature11661

  View details for PubMedID 23201690

• Control of somatic tissue differentiation by the long non-coding RNA TINCR NATURE Kretz, M., Siprashvili, Z., Chu, C., Webster, D. E., Zehnder, A., Qu, K., Lee, C. S., Flockhart, R. J., Groff, A. F., Chow, J., Johnston, D., Kim, G. E., Spitale, R. C., Flynn, R. A., Zheng, G. X., Aiyer, S., Raj, A., Rinn, J. L., Chang, H. Y., Khavari, P. A. 2013; 493 (7431): 231-U245

  Abstract

  Several of the thousands of human long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been functionally characterized; however, potential roles for lncRNAs in somatic tissue differentiation remain poorly understood. Here we show that a 3.7-kilobase lncRNA, terminal differentiation-induced ncRNA (TINCR), controls human epidermal differentiation by a post-transcriptional mechanism. TINCR is required for high messenger RNA abundance of key differentiation genes, many of which are mutated in human skin diseases, including FLG, LOR, ALOXE3, ALOX12B, ABCA12, CASP14 and ELOVL3. TINCR-deficient epidermis lacked terminal differentiation ultrastructure, including keratohyalin granules and intact lamellar bodies. Genome-scale RNA interactome analysis revealed that TINCR interacts with a range of differentiation mRNAs. TINCR-mRNA interaction occurs through a 25-nucleotide 'TINCR box' motif that is strongly enriched in interacting mRNAs and required for TINCR binding. A high-throughput screen to analyse TINCR binding capacity to approximately 9,400 human recombinant proteins revealed direct binding of TINCR RNA to the staufen1 (STAU1) protein. STAU1-deficient tissue recapitulated the impaired differentiation seen with TINCR depletion. Loss of UPF1 and UPF2, both of which are required for STAU1-mediated RNA decay, however, did not have differentiation effects. Instead, the TINCR-STAU1 complex seems to mediate stabilization of differentiation mRNAs, such as KRT80. These data identify TINCR as a key lncRNA required for somatic tissue differentiation, which occurs through lncRNA binding to differentiation mRNAs to ensure their expression.

  View details for DOI 10.1038/nature11661

  View details for Web of Science ID 000313259600041

  View details for PubMedID 23201690

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC3674581

• Transcriptome sequencing in Sezary syndrome identifies Sezary cell and mycosis fungoides-associated lncRNAs and novel transcripts BLOOD Lee, C. S., Ungewickell, A., Bhaduri, A., Qu, K., Webster, D. E., Armstrong, R., Weng, W., Aros, C. J., Mah, A., Chen, R. O., Lin, M., Sundram, U., Chang, H. Y., Kretz, M., Kim, Y. H., Khavari, P. A. 2012; 120 (16): 3288-3297

  Abstract

  Sézary syndrome (SS) is an aggressive cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL) of unknown etiology in which malignant cells circulate in the peripheral blood. To identify viral elements, gene fusions, and gene expression patterns associated with this lymphoma, flow cytometry was used to obtain matched pure populations of malignant Sézary cells (SCs) versus nonmalignant CD4(+) T cells from 3 patients for whole transcriptome, paired-end sequencing with an average depth of 112 million reads per sample. Pathway analysis of differentially expressed genes identified mis-regulation of PI3K/Akt, TGF?, and NF-?B pathways as well as T-cell receptor signaling. Bioinformatic analysis did not detect either nonhuman transcripts to support a viral etiology of SS or recurrently expressed gene fusions, but it did identify 21 SC-associated annotated long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs). Transcriptome assembly by multiple algorithms identified 13 differentially expressed unannotated transcripts termed Sézary cell-associated transcripts (SeCATs) that include 12 predicted lncRNAs and a novel transcript with coding potential. High-throughput sequencing targeting the 3' end of polyadenylated transcripts in archived tumors from 24 additional patients with tumor-stage CTCL confirmed the differential expression of SC-associated lncRNAs and SeCATs in CTCL. Our findings characterize the SS transcriptome and support recent reports that implicate lncRNA dysregulation in human malignancies.

  View details for DOI 10.1182/blood-2012-04-423061

  View details for PubMedID 22936659

• Rapid identification of non-human sequences in high-throughput sequencing datasets BIOINFORMATICS Bhaduri, A., Qu, K., Lee, C. S., Ungewickell, A., Khavari, P. A. 2012; 28 (8): 1174-1175

  Abstract

  Rapid identification of non-human sequences (RINS) is an intersection-based pathogen detection workflow that utilizes a user-provided custom reference genome set for identification of non-human sequences in deep sequencing datasets. In <2 h, RINS correctly identified the known virus in the dataset SRR73726 and is compatible with any computer capable of running the prerequisite alignment and assembly programs. RINS accurately identifies sequencing reads from intact or mutated non-human genomes in a dataset and robustly generates contigs with these non-human sequences (Supplementary Material).RINS is available for free download at http://khavarilab.stanford.edu/resources.html.

  View details for DOI 10.1093/bioinformatics/bts100

  View details for Web of Science ID 000302806900022

  View details for PubMedID 22377895

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC3324519

• Suppression of progenitor differentiation requires the long noncoding RNA ANCR GENES & DEVELOPMENT Kretz, M., Webster, D. E., Flockhart, R. J., Lee, C. S., Zehnder, A., Lopez-Pajares, V., Qu, K., Zheng, G. X., Chow, J., Kim, G. E., Rinn, J. L., Chang, H. Y., Siprashvili, Z., Khavari, P. A. 2012; 26 (4): 338-343

  Abstract

  Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) regulate diverse processes, yet a potential role for lncRNAs in maintaining the undifferentiated state in somatic tissue progenitor cells remains uncharacterized. We used transcriptome sequencing and tiling arrays to compare lncRNA expression in epidermal progenitor populations versus differentiating cells. We identified ANCR (anti-differentiation ncRNA) as an 855-base-pair lncRNA down-regulated during differentiation. Depleting ANCR in progenitor-containing populations, without any other stimuli, led to rapid differentiation gene induction. In epidermis, ANCR loss abolished the normal exclusion of differentiation from the progenitor-containing compartment. The ANCR lncRNA is thus required to enforce the undifferentiated cell state within epidermis.

  View details for DOI 10.1101/gad.182121.111

  View details for Web of Science ID 000300626800004

  View details for PubMedID 22302877

  View details for PubMedCentralID PMC3289881

• Adoption of Western Culture by Californian Asian Americans Attitudes and Practices Promoting Sun Exposure International Investigative Dermatology Meeting Gorell, E., Lee, C., Munoz, C., Chang, A. L. AMER MEDICAL ASSOC. 2009: 552?56

  Abstract

  To investigate whether the adoption of Western culture is associated with attitudes and practices promoting sun exposure among Asian Americans.Survey conducted from November 28, 2007, to January 28, 2008.Primarily northern California community groups via online survey.Adult volunteers who self-identified as Asian American.Results based on 546 questionnaires returned.The overall response rate was 74.4%. Multivariate regression analysis controlling for age and skin type showed that westernization (as determined by generation in the United States, location raised, or self-rated acculturation) was associated with attitudes and behaviors promoting sun exposure (including the belief that having a tan is attractive, negative attitudes toward use of sunscreen and sun protective clothing, and increased weekend sun exposure, lying out to get a tan, and tanning bed use) at a level of P < .05.Our data suggest that adoption of Western culture may be associated with attitudes and behaviors promoting sun exposure among Asian Americans. This group should be targeted by dermatologists for increased education regarding sun protection, solar damage, and skin cancer prevention and detection.

  View details for Web of Science ID 000266207400006

  View details for PubMedID 19451499

• Expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma during malignant melanoma progression JOURNAL OF CUTANEOUS PATHOLOGY Lee, C., Ramirez, J. A., Guitart, J., Diaz, L. K. 2008; 35 (11): 989-994

  Abstract

  Cancer chemoprevention using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs is frequently attributed to cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibition, although recent studies suggest that peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) may also be involved. While surgical excision remains the treatment mainstay for localized malignant melanoma, certain high-risk patients may benefit from adjunctive chemotherapy. In this study, we compared COX-2 and PPARgamma immunohistological staining in benign nevi, primary melanomas and metastatic melanomas to help predict the effectiveness of compounds targeting these markers.COX-2 and PPARgamma immunohistological staining was performed and reviewed in 99 melanocytic lesions, including 38 benign nevi, 32 primary melanomas and 29 metastatic melanomas.There was a significant increase in both COX-2 and PPARgamma immunostaining in melanomas compared with benign nevi. Metastatic melanomas were more likely to have a higher number of PPARgamma-immunopositive cells. They were also more likely to express COX-2 than primary melanomas. Neither COX-2 nor PPARgamma expression was associated with a specific pathologic subtype.COX-2 and PPARgamma may help modulate the progression of melanocytic precursor lesions to disseminated malignant melanoma. As such, they may serve as candidate substrates for targeted cancer therapies and may be particularly useful as adjuncts to surgery.

  View details for DOI 10.1111/j.1600-0560.2007.00939.x

  View details for Web of Science ID 000259955200002

  View details for PubMedID 18537861